les voix: For/Getting｜Re/Membering

[Notes on Philosophy]
Philosophy of HUMAN RIGHTS:
As other legal rights, every HUMAN RIGHT has to be specified with the elements:
Rightholder / Object / Addressee / Normative content / Any exceptions / Weight

* Epistemology (知識論)
信仰 (belief) 透過[相信]: 任何人可以相信相互矛盾的兩件事
知識 (knowledge) 透過[知道]: 任何人無法知道相互矛盾的兩件事
　．理性主義 (Rationalism)__接受先驗(a priori)知識之存在, 即透過[理性]或[邏輯]進行推理
　　A belief might be non-inferentially justified is by being “self-evident”.
　　Eg. 笛卡爾『我思故我在。』
　．經驗主義 (Empiricism)__僅承認後驗(a posteriori)知識之存在, [感受]爾後[歸納]或[演繹]
　　Knowledge could be inferentially justified from a non-inferentially belief.
　　Eg. 洛克『人心原為白板。』

所謂「知識」，係指真實與信仰的交集；即其既為真，亦被相信為真，因此得(須)證成。
　．Truths --> Knowledge 　　Eg(1). 我相信你殺人，不代表你真的殺人【客觀上不為真實】
　　Eg(2). 縱然你真的有殺人，不代表我相信【主觀上不為真實】
　　Eg(2). 我相信你殺人，而你也被證明有殺人，始為【真實】
　　　　　--> 因此才能稱「我『知道』你殺人」
這就是為什麼「為什麼身為人，即有人權」這件事，在哲學上需有justification！

Then, two main approaches are usually distinguishably taken:
* Teleological theory (目的論)
　．功利主義 (Utilitarianism)__justified by promotion of intrinsic goods (happiness or welfare)
　．結果主義 (Consequentialism)__類似功利主義，but not exclusively by happiness or welfare
　．自然法理論 (Natural law theory)__reason--> intrinsic goods--> human action
　　Common good of a community > aggregation of the good of each individual

* Deontological theory (義務論)
　．神諭論 (Divine command theory)__justified by God’s will or commands.
　．絕對律令 (Categorical Imperative) by 康德__justified by humanity or moral personality

因此：知識論是實證主義的濫觴？！
以知識論為基礎的methodology裡，包含了自然法的概念
惟這點似乎是哲學跟法學上比較不一樣的地方。

In terms of JURISPRUDENCE__自然法所指涉的法是法律性之義務
In terms of PHILOSOPHY__自然法所指涉的法為道德性的義務
縱然二者皆承認[先驗]之理性，但：
前者所謂之先驗，係指先於實證法生成前所存在之義務，譬如公平. 正義
後者所謂之先驗，為人性中毋須透過經驗即擁有的知識，例如善惡. 邏輯
所以，在法學裡，【自】跟【實】似乎互有衝突，但在哲學裡，二者卻又好像相輔相成（？！）

基於以上，檢驗的對象為：
Alan Gewirth (1912-2004) / James Griffin (1933- ) / John Rawls (1921-2002)

[Notes on History]
從歷史看人權:
Rights can be said to serve for security, peace, and sustainable development.

(The Enlightenment + Nationalism + Western European tradition)
Classical liberalism--> Individualism--> 1st wave of democratization-->
Awareness of [human dignity] in equality among people:
1st generation of human rights (Liberty rights: civil and political rights, namely, freedom of expression & freedom of worship) --> mainly, UDHR + ICCPR etc.

(The Depression + Nationalism + Latin American philosophy)
Social liberalism--> Collectivism--> 2nd wave of democratization-->
Proposition for [social justice] in equality among people:
2nd generation of human rights (Welfare rights: economic and social rights, namely, freedom from fear & freedom from want) --> mainly, UDHR + ICESCR etc.


1. Anti-totalitarianism & decolonialization: CPR
2. Centre path between failings of liberalism & collectivism: ESCR
3. * Post-conflict and transitional settings (more than simply because of humanitarianism) provide sufficient social conditions for human rights discourse--the political, moral and instrumental elements --> more motivation for a need of legal framework

Eg. {Right to health}
WWI: Covenant of the LoN
WWII: Common enemy --> WHO Constitution / UDHR (covering both cpr & escr)
Cold War: lame WHO / separate adoption of ICCPR & ICESCR
Especially for the R2H [Biomedical approach --> Social determinants of health]

[Notes on Normativity]
Definition:
　(All human beings) are (born) (free and equal) in (dignity and rights)
　+ Endowed with (reason and conscience)
　+ Acting toward each other in (brotherhood)
假設：人人生而理性，具有良知，且自由、平等
因此：人人擁有相同尊嚴，享有相等相同之權利與
理性之人＋良知＋友愛

Categories:
1. CPR v. ESCR
2. Rights of individuals v. Rights of collectivities
3. Core rights v. Non-core rights

Features:
1. Universality
2. Inalienability
3. Indivisibility: interdependence + interrelatedness

Concept: Justice / Fairness
1. 分配正義--> equality & non-discrimination
2. 程序正義--> due process & presumption of freedom
3. 恢復正義：
　　有損害，即得救濟
　　有匱乏，即應補充
　　有錯誤，即該修正
　　有妨礙，即須去除

Normative contents:
【Core rights】
* Right to integrity of the person
　．Right to life
　．Freedom from torture and ill-treatment
(1) Rightholder: Everyone
(2) Object: personal integrity
(3) Addressee: States + Non-state actors
(4) Normative content:
　　- Duty to respect
　　- Duty to protect = {消極}不侵害 + {積極} 去除妨害 / 提供救濟
(5) Any exceptions: Legitimate exceptions only according to international law
　　- 僅限於最嚴重之罪行
　　- 符合程序正義之要求
　　- 適用客體資格之限定
　　-- Non-derogable rights
(6) Weight: respect for human dignity
** State’s primary responsibility --> Community’s responsibility to protect

* Right to an adequate standard of living
　．Right to food
　．Right to water
　．Right to clothing
　．Right to Housing
　．Right to Health
(1) Rightholder: Everyone
(2) Object: living adequacy
(3) Addressee: States + Non-state actors
(4) Normative content:
　　- Requirements
　　　= Availability (quantity)
　　　+ Accessibility (equality / physicality / affordability / informativity)
　　　+ Acceptability (sustainability / adaptability)
　　　+ Quality (safety)
　　- Obligations
　　　= Duty to respect
　　　+ Duty to protect
　　　+ Duty to fulfill (to facilitate / provide / promote)
(5) Any exceptions: Progressive realization only at best use of limited resources
(6) Weight: maintenance of personal living
** State’s chief obligation --> Community’s duty of international assistance

【Corollary rights】
* Other fundamental liberty rights
　．Freedom of thought, conscience and religion
　．Freedom of opinion and expression
　．Freedom of association and assembly
　．Freedom from arbitrary detention
　．Right to a fair trial
(1) Rightholder: at least every citizen
(2) Object: everything related to personal integrity
(3) Addressee: mostly resting on States
(4) Normative content:
　　- Duty to respect
　　- Duty to protect = {消極}不侵害 + {積極} 去除妨害 / 提供救濟
(5) Any exceptions: Legitimate restrictions permitted in nature of freedoms
　　- 依法限制 (僅得限制forum externum，不及於forum internum)
　　- 正當目的 (其他人之權利或自由 / 公共利益)
　　- 手段符合比例原則
　　- 推定享有絕對自由
　　-- Derogable rights
(6) Weight: manifestation of human dignity

* Other fundamental welfare rights
　．Right to education
　．Right to work
　．Right to social security and assistance
(1) Rightholder: at least every citizen
(2) Object: everything related to living adequacy
(3) Addressee: mostly resting on States
(4) Normative content:
　　- Requirements
　　　= Availability (quantity)
　　　+ Accessibility (equality / physicality / affordability / informativity)
　　　+ Acceptability (sustainability / adaptability)
　　　+ Quality (safety)
　　- Obligations
　　　= Duty to respect
　　　+ Duty to protect
　　　+ Duty to fulfill (to facilitate / provide / promote)
(5) Any exceptions: Progressive realization only at best use of limited resources
(6) Weight: capacity for personal living

Realization:
- To identify violations
- To internalize implementation
　* Legislation & policies
　* Indicators & benchmarks
　* Remedies & accountability